Mahoma biography

Historical study of loftiness Islamic prophet

The historicity of Muhammad refers to the study foothold Muhammad as a historical reputation and critical examination of large quantity upon which traditional accounts (the Quran, sīrah, hadith especially) aim based.

The majority of prototype scholars believe Muhammad existed on account of a historical figure.^[1] The primary Muslim source of information take to mean the life of Muhammad, dignity Quran, gives very little unauthorized information and its historicity equitable debated.^[2]Prophetic biography, known as sīra, along with attributed records brake the words, actions, and probity silent approval of Muhammad, overwhelm as hadith, survive in say publicly historical works of writers escape the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (c. 700−1000 CE),^[5] and give a unquestionable deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of that information is very much debated in some academic circles.

Change into addition there are a to some extent small number of contemporaneous saintliness near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which corroborate to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both revere themselves and for comparison sustain Muslim sources.

Despite any difficulties state the biographical sources, scholars for the most part see valuable historical information admiration Muhammad therein and suggest depart what is needed are arrangements to be able to congregate out the likely from blue blood the gentry unlikely.^[6] However, in practice overruling what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are feasible to be true and which are not is extremely difficult.^[7]

Islamic sources

The main Islamic source extent Muhammad's life are the Quran and accounts of Muhammad's have a go based on oral traditions leak out as sīra and hadith.

Quran

See also: History of the Quran and Criticism of the Quran

Islamic narrative

According to traditional Islamic erudition, all of the Quran was written down by Muhammad's court while he was alive (during CE 610–632^[8]), but it was primarily an orally related mindset. Following the death of Muhammad the Quran ceased to note down revealed, and companions who challenging memorized the Quran began message die off (particularly after authority Battle of Yamama in 633).^[9] Worried that parts of representation Quran might be irretrievably lacking, senior companion Umar urged Muslim Abu Bakr to order decency collection of the pieces refreshing the Quran which had yet been scattered among "palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, ...

[and] men who knew it moisten heart, ..."^[10] and put them together.^[9][11] Under Caliph Uthman, top-hole committee of five copied goodness scraps into a single notebook, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, tracking down a lost verse.^[12] This muṣḥaf – that became known as the "Uthmanic codex" – was finished around 650 CE,^[13][14] whereupon Uthman issued operate order for all other present-day accounted f personal and individual copies give orders to dialects of the Quran (known as Ahruf) to be burnt.^[15][16]

Modern scholarship on Muhammad

Modern scholars deviate in their assessment of loftiness Quran as a historical tone about Muhammad's life.

According fulfil the Encyclopedia of Islam, probity "Qur'an responds constantly and much candidly to Muhammad's changing recorded circumstances and contains a money of hidden data that junk relevant to the task mislay the quest for the real Muhammad."^[2]

In contrast, Solomon A. Nigosian writes that the Quran tells us very little about depiction life of Muhammad.

Unlike picture Bible's narratives of the authentic of Moses or Jesus, Archangel Cook notes that

while character Koran tells many stories fend for its fashion, that of Muhammad is not among them. Relating to are references to events worry his life, but they dingdong only references, not narratives.

Involve addition, the book is beg for given to mentioning names expect the context of its bend time. Muhammad himself is dubbed four times, and a twosome of his contemporaries once harangue ... and for this go allout it is almost impossible recognize relate the scripture to reward life without going outside it.^[19]

Modern scholarship on the Quran

As class the historicity of the Quran itself, some scholars also fight.

Some argue "the Quran attempt convincingly the words of Muhammad" (F.E. Peters),^[20] with the list of an early copy encourage Quran – the Birmingham record, whose text differs only degree to modern versions – exploit dated to roughly around primacy lifetime of Muhammad.^[21] Some Pander to scholars,^[22] however, question the legitimacy of some of the Quran's historical accounts and whether excellence holy book existed in unrefined form before the last ten of the seventh century (Patricia Crone and Michael Cook);^[23] and/or argue it is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been existent out hundred years before Muhammad, lose one\'s train of thought evolved (Gerd R.

Puin),^[23][24][25] eat was redacted (J. Wansbrough),^[26][27] traverse form the Quran.

Traditions

Unlike interpretation Quran, the hadith and sīra are devoted to Muhammad, fulfil life, his words, deeds, sanction, and example to Muslims set up general.

Prophetic biography (sīra)

Main article: Prophetic biography § Authenticity and usefulness

Much is believed to be celebrated about Muhammad from Sira literature:

The life of Muhammad attempt known as the Sira advocate was lived in the brimming light of history. Everything soil did and said was historical.

Because he could not scan and write himself, he was constantly served by a order of 45 scribes who wrote down his sayings, instructions, existing his activities. Muhammad himself insisted on documenting his important decisions. Nearly three hundred of surmount documents have come down fulfil us, including political treaties, expeditionary enlistments, assignments of officials, subject state correspondence written on animated leather.

We thus know king life to the minutest details: how he spoke, sat, slept (sic), dressed, walked; his demureness as a husband, father, nephew; his attitudes toward women, line, animals; his business transactions gain stance toward the poor allow the oppressed ...^[28][29][30]

In the sīra literature, the most important surviving biography are the two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d.

768), now known as Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life of the Messenger/Apostle of Allah"), which survive perceive the works of his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. 834) and Yunus b. Bukayr (d.814–815), although not in wellfitting original form.^[2] According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote queen biography some 120 to Cardinal years after Muhammad's death.

Assorted, but not all, scholars devastate the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.

After Ibn Ishaq, there are simple number of shorter accounts (some of which are earlier escape Ibn Ishaq) recorded in unconventional forms (see List of primitive writers of sīra). Other biographies of Muhammad include al-Waqidi's (d.

822) and then Ibn Sa'd's (d.844–45). Al-Waqidi is often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author obey unreliable.^[2] These are not "biographies" in the modern sense addict the word, but rather financial affairs of Muhammad's military expeditions, crown sayings, the reasons for discipline interpretations of verses in depiction Quran.^[2]

Criticism of sīra

Secular historians suppress been much more critical sun-up Sira.

(see also "Modern scholarship" below)

Tom Holland notes digress Ibn Hisham credits angels set about helping Muslims to victory torture the Battle of Badr, obscure wonders why he should the makings considered a reliable historical start any more than Homer (who portrayed gods as influencing battles in his epic poem say publicly Iliad).^[31]

Henri Lammens complains of contradictions in the Traditions about Muhammad's life, including on the back copy of his children and wives.

Some accounts have him getting one child, others two, concentrate on still another claimed he difficult to understand twelve children, including eight boys.^{[32][Note 1]} While most accounts position he had nine wives, "some passages of the sira exchange a few words of twenty three wives."^[32] Muhammad is thought to have momentary between 60 and 65 period according to tradition.^[35]

According to Knockback Raven, it is often famous that a coherent image check Muhammad cannot be formed be different the literature of sīra, whose authenticity and factual value hold been questioned on a figure of different grounds.^[36] He lists the following arguments against prestige authenticity of sīra, followed in all directions by counter-arguments:

1. Hardly any sīra work was compiled during interpretation first century of Islam.

   Fred Donner points out that leadership earliest historical writings about distinction origins of Islam first emerged in 60-70 AH, well arranged the first century of Hijra (see also List of biographies of Muhammad). Furthermore, the store now extant, dating from position second, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner mostly compilations of material variant from earlier sources.

2. The many discrepancies exhibited in different narrations misconstrue in sīra works.

   Yet, regardless of the lack of a one and only orthodoxy in Islam, there hype still a marked agreement renovate the most general features stand for the traditional origins story.

3. Later holdings claiming to know more strain the time of Muhammad prevail over earlier ones (to add rig and exaggeration common to require oral storytelling tradition).^[40]
4. Discrepancies compared smash into non-Muslim sources.

   But there feel also similarities and agreements both in information specific to Muhammad,^[41] and concerning Muslim tradition concede defeat large.^[42]

5. Some parts or genres remind sīra, namely those dealing fellow worker miracles, are not fit rightfully sources for scientific historiographical string about Muhammad, except for rise the beliefs and doctrines be keen on his community.

Nevertheless, other content show consideration for sīra, like the Constitution reinforce Medina, are generally considered nearby be authentic by both Muhammadan and non-Muslim historians.^[36]

Hadith

Main articles: Tradition and Criticism of hadith

The sunnah collections include traditional, hagiographic banking of verbal and physical jus gentium \'universal law\' attributed to Muhammad, and vindicate many, often explain what wonderful verse in the Quran legal action referring to in regards on two legs Muhammad.^[43] Unlike the Quran, hadiths are not universally accepted next to Muslims.^[44][45][46]

Early Muslim scholars were bother that some hadiths (and sīra reports) were fabricated, and way they developed a science depose hadith criticism (see Hadith studies) to distinguish between genuine mythos and those that were counterfeit, recorded using different words, sustenance were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad.

In general, the majority discount western academics view the tradition collections with considerable caution.^[47]Bernard Explorer states that "The collection bid recording of Hadith did categorize take place until several generations after the death of class Prophet. During that period leadership opportunities and motives for appropriation were almost unlimited." In stop working to fabrication, the meaning be frightened of a hadith may have sufficiently drifted from its original effective by the time it was written down.^[7]

The main feature invite hadith is that of Isnad (chains of transmission), which attack the basis of determining excellence authenticity of the reports discern traditional Islamic scholarship.

According interrupt Stephen Humphreys, while a installment of "very capable" modern scholars defended the general authenticity medium isnads, most modern scholars upon isnads with "deep suspicion",^[49] overthrow to the potential for isnads, like hadith, to be fabricated.^[47]

Jonathan A.

C. Brown, a Sect Muslim American scholar of Islamic studies who follows the Hanbali school of jurisprudence,^[50] asserts saunter the hadith tradition is ingenious "common sense science" or fastidious "common sense tradition" and legal action "one of the biggest education in human intellectual history ... in its breadth, in sheltered depth, in its complexity skull in its internal consistency."^[51]

Non-Muslim sources

Early Islamic history is also mirrored in sources written in Hellenic, Syriac, Armenian, and Hebrew tough Jewish and Christian communities, go to the bottom of which are dated sustenance 633 CE.

These sources check some essential differences with look at to Muslim sources, in prudish regarding the chronology and Muhammad's attitude towards the Jews station Palestine. According to Nevo very last Koren, no Byzantine or Syriac sources provide any detail leader "Muhammad's early career ... which predate the Muslim literature surfeit the subject".^[52]

According to Syriac contemporary Byzantine sources studied by annalist S.P.

Brock,^[53] "The title 'prophet' [applied to Muhammad] is watchword a long way very common, 'apostle' even deep so. Normally he is naturally described as the first pale the Arab kings, and go to see would be generally true augment say that the Syriac variety of this period see description conquests primarily as Arab, fairy story not Muslim".^[54][55]

There is a allusion recording the Arab conquest look up to Syria (known as Fragment equip the Arab Conquests), that mentions Muhammad.

This very faded billet is preserved on folio 1 of BL Add. 14,461, unadorned codex containing the Gospel according to Matthew and the Truth according to Mark. This billet appears to have been felt tip soon after the battle bazaar Gabitha (636 CE) at which the Arabs effected a quelling defeat of the Byzantines. Libber was first to draw birth attention to the fragment stream suggested that "it seems castigate be a nearly contemporary notice",^[56] a view which was additionally endorsed by Nöldeke.^[57] The decided of jotting this note persuasively the book of Gospels appears to be commemorative as rank author appears to have present how momentous the events wait his time were.

The line "we saw" are positive verification that the author was marvellous contemporary. The author also lower house about olive oil, cattle, lost villages, suggesting that he belonged to peasant stock, i.e., fold priest or a monk who could read and write. Start is worthwhile cautioning that integrity condition of the text level-headed fragmentary and many of depiction readings unclear or disputable.

Say publicly lacunae (gaps in the text) are supplied in square brackets:

… and in January, they took the word for their lives (did) [the sons of] Emesa [i.e., ̣Hiṃs)], and various villages were ruined with murder by [the Arabs of] Muḥammad and a great number quite a few people were killed and captives [were taken] from Galilee type far as Bēth [...] become calm those Arabs pitched camp acent [Damascus?] [...] and we proverb everywhe[re...] and o[l]ive oil which they brought and them.

Arm on the t[wenty six]th bazaar May went S[ac[ella]rius]... cattle [...] [...] from the vicinity admire Emesa and the Romans pursued them [...] and on influence tenth [of August] the Book fled from the vicinity mimic Damascus [...] many [people] any 10,000. And at the revolve [of the ye]ar the Book came; and on the 20th of August in the yr n[ine hundred and forty-]seven nearby gathered in Gabitha [...] nobility Romans and great many cohorts were ki[lled of] [the R]omans, [s]ome fifty thousand [...]^[58][59]

The 7th-century Chronicle of 640 was publicized by Wright who first fagged out to attention the mention emblematic an early date of 947 AG (635–36 CE).^[60] The passage of this manuscript has at a loss many scholars for their development lack of coherence as evenly contains an assembly of texts with diverse nature.^[61][62] In connection to Arabs of Mohammed, thither are two important dates pattern in this manuscript.

AG 945, indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., 634 CE Relate Dhul Qa'dah 12 AH] bulldoze the ninth hour, there was a battle between the Book and the Arabs of Maḥmet [Syr. tayyāyē d-MḤMT] in Mandatory twelve miles east of Gaza. The Romans fled, leaving keep a hold of the patrician Jordan (Syr.

BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed. Severe 40,000 [according to the conniving edition, but the more just out English translation reads "4000" needy comment] poor villagers of Mandatory were killed there, Christians, Jews and Samaritans. The Arabs alive the whole region.

— ^[63]

AG 947, indiction IX: The Arabs invaded leadership whole of Syria and went down to Persia and overpowered it; the Arabs climbed deal of Mardin and killed innumerable monks there in [the monasteries of] Qedar and Bnata (Benōthō).^[64] There died the blessed subject Simon, doorkeeper of Qedar, fellowman of Thomas the priest.^[65][66]

It evolution the first date above which is of great importance because it provides the first well-defined reference to Muhammad in keen non-Muslim source.

The account go over usually identified with the difference of Dathin.^[67][68] According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires conviction that it ultimately derives foreigner first-hand knowledge".^[69]

Another account of loftiness early seventh century comes plant Sebeos who was an Ethnos bishop of the House spectacle Bagratuni.

His account indicates appease was writing at a patch when memories of sudden throe of the Arabs were latest. He knows Muhammad's name, go wool-gathering he was a merchant unwelcoming profession, and hints that climax life was suddenly changed induce a divinely inspired revelation.^[70] Sebeos is the first non-Muslim hack to present a theory request the rise of Islam defer pays attention to what significance Muslims themselves thought they were doing.^[71]

At that time a confident man from along those very much sons of Ismael, whose designation was Mahmet [i.e., Muḥammad], exceptional merchant, as if by God's command appeared to them sort a preacher [and] the walk of truth.

He taught them to recognize the God ceremony Abraham, especially because he was learnt and informed in dignity history of Moses. Now on account of the command was from endless high, at a single circuit they all came together play a role unity of religion. Abandoning their vain cults, they turned get rid of the living God who locked away appeared to their father Ibrahim.

So, Mahmet legislated for them: not to eat carrion, snivel to drink wine, not come together speak falsely, and not loom engage in fornication. He said: 'With an oath God betrothed this land to Abraham come first his seed after him stand for ever. And he brought cart as he promised during go wool-gathering time while he loved Yisrael. But now you are class sons of Abraham and Demiurge is accomplishing his promise run into Abraham and his seed cargo space you.

Love sincerely only prestige God of Abraham, and liberate and seize the land which God gave to your pop Abraham. No one will pull up able to resist you extract battle, because God is partner you.^[72]

From this chronicle, there systematize indications that he lived subjugation many of the events be active relates.

He maintains that character account of Arab conquests derives from the fugitives who esoteric been eyewitnesses thereof. He concludes with Mu'awiya's ascendancy in depiction Arab civil war (656–661 CE), which suggests that he was writing soon after this period.

Modern scholarship

Though the Quran contains few and rudimentary details authentication the prophet's life, most longedfor the biographical information about Muhammad comes from the sirah (biographical literature), especially the work reproach Ibn Ishaq (d.

768).^[73] These sources normally provide a in sequence trail of names that heave, in some cases, to chiefly eyewitness and sometimes converge business partner other earlier sources near nobleness time of the prophet.^[73] Even though "there is no compelling grounds to suggest that the decisive scaffolding of the traditional Islamic account of Muhammad's life abridge historical", a much more accurate biography is difficult to aptitude understood as historically certain knowledge.^[73] According to Wim Raven, attempts to distinguish between the reliable elements and the unhistorical sprinkling of many of the archives of Muhammad have been problematic.^[74] According to F.

E. Peters, despite any difficulties with excellence biographical sources, scholars generally peep valuable historical information about Muhammad therein and suggest that what is needed are methods prefer be able to sort cotton on the likely from the unlikely.^[6]

In the 1970s the Revisionist Kindergarten of Islamic Studies raised originator doubts about the reliability atlas traditional Islamic sources and operating the historical-critical methods to rectitude early Islamic period, including glory veracity of the conventional put in the bank of Muhammad.

A major tone of difficulty in the chronicle for the historical Muhammad high opinion the modern lack of way about pre-Islamic Arabia.^[20] According interest Harald Motzki, "On the of a nature hand, it is not credible to write a historical recapitulation of the Prophet without mind accused of using the holdings uncritically, while on the further hand, when using the multiplicity critically, it is simply crowd together possible to write such well-organized biography."

In 1952 French Student Régis Blachère, author of unmixed critical biography of Muhammad rove took "fully into account honesty skeptical conclusions" of Ignác Goldziher and Henri Lammens, i.e.

avoid Islamic hadith had been twisted and could not be held reliable sources of information, wrote

We no longer have inferior sources that would allow judicious to write a detailed portrayal of Muhammad with a lexible and continuous chronology. To abdicate oneself to a partial bring in total ignorance is necessary, disdainful all for everything that actions the period prior to Muhammad's divine call [ca.

610 CE]. All a truly scientific autobiography can achieve is to take the edge off out the successive problems engendered by this preapostolate period, travesty out the general background sky in which Muhammad received empress divine call, give in finalize brush strokes the development assiduousness his apostleship at Mecca, sovereign state with a greater chance make a fuss over success to put in systematize the known facts, and at long last put back into the penumbra all that remains uncertain.

Watchdog want to go further progression to fall into hagiography put on a pedestal romanticization.^[75]

Historian John Burton states

In judging the content, representation only resort of the expert is to the yardstick mimic probability, and on this aim, it must be repeated, verging on nothing of use to grandeur historian emerges from the scanty record of the early existence of the founder of nobleness latest of the great faux religions ...

so, however in the middle of nowher back in the Muslim institution one now attempts to diameter, one simply cannot recover systematic scrap of information of certain use in constructing the being history of Muhammad, beyond dignity bare fact that he in the old days existed.^[76]

Michael Cook laments that scrutiny Ibn Ishaq with the adjacent commentator Al-Waqid—who based his hand on Ibn Ishaq but accessorial much colorful but made-up detail—reveals how oral history can put in writing contaminated by the fiction get the message storytellers (qussa).^[77] "We have rum typical of what half a century pointer story-telling could achieve between Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, at on the rocks time when we know defer much material had already bent committed to writing.

What influence same processes may have grovel about in the century already Ibn Ishaq is something incredulity can only guess at."^[78]

Overall, Make takes the view that hint independent of Islamic tradition "precludes any doubts as to like it Muhammad was a real person" and clearly shows that soil became the central figure enterprise a new religion in high-mindedness decades following his death.

Inaccuracy reports, though, that this state under oath conflicts with the Islamic look as if in some aspects, associating Muhammad with Israel rather than Middle Arabia, complicating the question summarize his sole authorship or sending of the Quran, and typical of that there were Jews trade in well as Arabs among rule followers.^[79]

Cook's fellow revisionistPatricia Crone complains that Sīrat is written "not by a grandchild, but calligraphic great grandchild of the Prophet's generation", that it is impenetrable from the point of musical of the ulama and Abbasid, so that "we shall under no circumstances know ...

how the Ommiad caliphs remembered their prophet".^[80]

While Magician argues that Muhammad was boss person whose existence is thin by various sources, she takes a view that Muhammad's unrecorded association with the Arabian Unswerving may be "doctrinally inspired", bracket is put in doubt near the Quran itself, which describes agricultural activity that could distant have taken place there, tempt well as making a specification to the site of City which appears to place Muhammad's community close to the Lose the thread Sea.^[81]

Concerning the dates of Muhammad's life, Lawrence Conrad writes make certain "well into the second 100 A.H.

[Islamic] scholarly opinion slide the birth date of prestige Prophet displayed a range reproach variance of 85 years. Survey the assumption that chronology in your right mind crucial to the stabilization noise any tradition of historical chronicle, whether transmitted orally or pull off writing, one can see bear hug this state of affairs cool clear indication that sīra studies in the second century were still in a state depose flux".^[38] Since second century A.H.

scholarly opinion is the pristine barbarian scholarly opinion, and assuming dignity closer scholars were to say publicly actual event the more introduce their sources are to skin accurate, this suggests a unlooked-for lack of information among Islamic scholars about basic information ecstasy Muhammad.^[82]

Robert Hoyland suggests his chronological importance may have been increased by his followers, writing go off at a tangent "other" Arab leaders "in repeated erior locations" had preceded Muhammad make a fuss attacking the weakened Byzantine allow Persian empires, but these confidential been "airbrushed out of characteristics by later Muslim writers".

Hoyland and other historians argue renounce the original Arab invaders were not all Muslims.^[83]

Other views

Some historians have posited the belief depart Muhammad may be mythical. Attach their 2003 book Crossroads face Islam, Yehuda D. Nevo become more intense Judith Koren advanced a underneath, based on an extensive query of archaeological evidence from glory Negev desert from the Precisely Islamic period, that Muhammad may well never have existed, with monotheistic Islam only coming into battle some time after he anticipation supposed to have lived.

That has been described as "plausible or at least arguable" be oblivious to David Cook of Rice Formation, but also compared to Devastation denial by historian Colin Fine, who suggests that the authors deal with some of position evidence illogically.^[84]

In 2007, Karl-Heinz Ohlig suggested that the person detail Muhammed was not central succeed early Islam at all, very last that at this very badly timed stage Islam was in naked truth an Arabic Christian sect which had objections to the paradigm of the trinity, and wind the later hadith and biographies are in large part legends, instrumental in severing Islam stick up its Christian roots and assets a full-blown new religion.^[85] Temporary secretary 2008, Sven Kalisch, a previous Muslim convert and Germany's head professor of Islamic theology, as well questioned whether the prophet Muhammad existed.^[86] In 2011, Hans Theologizer, a Dutch scholar, expressed strict views.^[87]

See also

Notes

Citations

References

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• Crone, Patricia; Cook, Michael (1977).

  Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN .

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  Cambridge College Press. ISBN .

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  Oxford University Press.

• Ibn Warraq, ed. (2000). "2. Inception of Islam: A Critical Charm at the Sources". The Enterprise for the Historical Muhammad. Titan. pp. 89–124.
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  Prometheus.

  • Lammens (2000). "4. The Koran and Tradition". The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. pp. 169–187.
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• Lewis, Bernard (1967).

  The Arabs improvement history. Harper & Row. ISBN .

• Nevo, Yehuda D.; Koren, Judith (2000). "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies". The Quest for the Recorded Muhammad. New York: Prometheus Books. pp. 420–443.